Where Is ATP Made in Cells?

Cells Produce Energy
Where Is ATP Made in Cells?
ATP is made in our cells by capturing some of the energy released from
energy molecules when they are broken down in energy pathways. Most
of the ATP made in our body is made in mitochondria (singular: mito-
chondrion). For this reason mitochondria are often referred to as the
"powerhouses" of our cells. A relatively small portion of the ATP gener-
ated in our cells each day will be made in the intracellular fluid outside the
mitochondria. As you might expect, cells with higher energy demands
will have more mitochondria. This is certainly true for heart and skeletal
muscle cells and cells within our liver.

What Would We Expect to Find Inside of Our Cells?

What Would We Expect to Find Inside of Our Cells?
Immersed in and bathed by the intracellular fluid are small compartments
called organelles. The word organelle means "little organ." Two of the
more recognizable organelles are the nucleus and mitochondria. Other
organelles include endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
and peroxisomes  . The various organelles are little oper-
ation centers within cells. Each type of organelle performs a different and
specialized job  . Each organelle has its own membrane with
many similarities to the plasma membrane. Therefore, as we discuss the
nature of the plasma membrane below you can keep in mind that some of
these features also pertain to organelle membranes as well.


Table 2.1 Overview of Organelle Function
Organelle       Function and Specialized Features
Nucleus         Houses almost all of our DNA
Mitochondria    Is the site of most ATP manufacturing in cells; houses some DNA
Lysosomes       Involved in breaking down unnecessary or foreign substances;
                contains acidic environment and digestive enzymes
Endoplasmic     Involved in making proteins and lipid substances destined to be
reticulum       exported from cell
Peroxisomes     Like lysosomes but with different assortment of enzymes; site of
                detoxification
Golgi           The final packaging site for substances ready to be exported
apparatus       from a cell
 
   Cells contain special compartments called organelles, which have
   special functions to support total cell function.
  Also within the intracellular fluid of certain cells we would expect
to find some energy reserves in the form of fat droplets and glycogen
(carbohydrate)  . The amount of glycogen and fat will
vary depending on the type of cell. Another important component of
cells is ribosomes. Ribosomes are the actual site where proteins are
constructed.

What Are Free Radicals and Antioxidants?

Free Radicals Are Biological Bullies; Antioxidants
Are Cellular Superheroes
What Are Free Radicals and Antioxidants?
Over the past decade or so, more and more attention has focused upon
free radicals or oxidants and their counterparts, antioxidants. Once we
understand free radicals, it is easy to appreciate the importance of nutri-
ents associated with antioxidant activities of vitamins and minerals such
as vitamins C and E and selenium, copper, iron, manganese, and zinc as
well as other nutrients such as lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin.
   A free radical is a substance that interacts with other molecules by
taking an electron from them or by forcing an electron upon them. In
most cases it is the former event. You will remember that earlier we called
the process of losing an electron oxidation and the process of gaining an
electron reduction. The major difference between proper oxidation and
reduction and the damaging activity of free radicals is a matter of accept-
ability and stability of the molecules that free radicals interact with. Since
free radicals often interact with molecules that do not want to give up an
electron, free radicals can be viewed as biological bullies. They will inter-
act with other molecules without regard for the stability of these mol-
ecules. Typically, free-radical substances include oxygen, for example:
     superoxide (O2−)
•
•    hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
     hydroxyl radicals (OH−)
•
One obvious feature of the free radicals just listed is that they closely
resemble the oxygen (O2) we breathe—so how abnormal could they be?
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